Academic Writing Conventions

·        Research communication

·        Critical analysis

·        Structural components

·        Argument

·        Intellectual property

·        Further resources

 

 

Research communication

Research communication aims to:

·        Disseminate specific information

·        Generate discussion about ideas

·        Help us become established as credible researchers in our field.

Once ideas go out into the public domain – to other academics, the general public, to professionals in our area –control over how they are going to be interpreted and used is lost.  Our research becomes a part of the body of knowledge that others will refer to and build upon in their own work or activities – but we cannot know how it will be used.

It is therefore important to be:

·        Unambiguous – clear and precise – as possible

·        Ethical, both in reporting the results and in maintaining confidentiality or the anonymity of participants

·        Professional in the presentation our work, in responding to questions about our work, and in encouraging others to build upon our ideas

In order to do these effectively we need to develop academic writing skills that enable us to:

·        Clearly articulate an area of knowledge

·        Make connections with the reader’s area of interest

·        Assist the reader to follow our argument

While some of these skills are general writing skills, there are also writing conventions that have developed to make it easier for research to be understood and analysed.

Structural components                                                              Up arrow

While there are many different forms of academic writing, there is often a similar structure in terms of the basic components. How these are used or written about will, of course, differ in relation to the purpose of the writing (eg thesis, review article, publication) and the style of writing (eg narrative, analytical, scientific), with other components being included according to the particular research paradigm (eg empirical, positivist, post-positivist). The basic components of academic writing include:

·        Research problem – what is the context within which a problem exists?

·        Research questions / hypotheses – what are the specific questions being posed by this research?

·        Location in a body of knowledge – how does this research relate to the literature?

·        Methodology and methods used – how was the research conducted?

·        Significance of the research – the ‘so what?’ factor: what contribution does the research make to a body of knowledge?

Intellectual Property                                                                  Up arrow

When we conduct research, new knowledge is created which becomes our intellectual property (IP). There are seven types of intellectual property:

1.      Copyright

2.      Confidential information

3.      Circuit layouts

4.      Plant breeder’s rights

5.      Patents

6.      Trademarks

7.      Designs

For the same reasons that it is important that we have our own IP protected, we also need to ensure that we act responsibly in relation to the IP belonging to someone else. We therefore need to have a reasonable understanding of the complex field of moral and legal rights and responsibilities surrounding:

·        What intellectual property is

·        Who the intellectual property belongs to

·        How intellectual property can be protected

To help sort through some of these issues the Federal Government has established an agency called IP Australia which has an excellent website dedicated to resources on intellectual property including online workshops.

Policies and guidelines

Within UniSA, intellectual property is covered by the University Activities Policy, with issues discussed in more detail in the University Activities – Intellectual Property: Ownership and Commercialisation Guidelines.  Contravening intellectual property policies is not only a serious form of academic misconduct, but also an illegal activity that incurs court-imposed penalties.

Resources

Research services has legal officers who provide advice and develop resources about IP. The following resources have been developed to specifically assist students:

·        Intellectual property law reference guide (graphics file)

·        Legal issues relevant to students covers the issues of intellectual property, insurance and defamation (Word document)

·        IP websites (Word document)

Critical Analysis                                                                         Up arrow

Part of developing an argument relates to our ability to critically analyse the literature. There are four levels of understanding when reading and writing. Developing a critical understanding of the literature (including what we are writing) requires us to have a:

Literal understanding – where we can describe what is said in the article / book.

Lateral understanding – where we can interpret what is said in relation to its broader context (other articles, historical context, perspective taken).

Critical understanding – where we can evaluate or analyse what is said in terms of its:

-       Intrinsic value, that is, whether it achieves what it set out to do; whether the research is valid and/or reliable; does it have a consistent argument.

-       Extrinsic value, that is, whether it is relevant for our research question; the extent to which it aligns with our views / values / argument.

We could then develop a

Speculative understanding – where we begin to formulate new ideas based on what is said in the article / book.

Developing a reading and note-taking strategy that facilitates a multi-level understanding of the literature can be useful. This reading log provides one way to ‘ask questions of the literature’ in ways that help us to think about all four levels of understanding. This won’t be necessary for all of the literature that we read, but it could come in useful for the key articles / books.

Critical analysis is important in academic writing because it:

·        Stimulates intellectual rigour by:

-       Questioning the basis of ‘facts’

-       Examining the logic of arguments

-       Acknowledging the power relations (and vested interests) in discourses and arguments

·        Encourages creative thinking by:

-       Identifying the gaps or silences

-       Examining the relation of theory to practice

·        Assists in the development of our arguments by:

-       Understanding how arguments are constructed

-       Basing judgements on evidence

-       Recognising that (even good) arguments and theories are flawed – they might partially address a problem or have particular strengths and weaknesses.

Resources

Tim van Gelder’s Critical Thinking on the Web provides numerous resources for further developing critical thinking skills.

Reason!Able is an inexpensive software program that has been created to stimulate critical thinking and logical analysis. It helps to map arguments and identify their strengths and weaknesses. Good to use when planning and writing a thesis. A free trial version is available.

Argument                                                                                    Up arrow

Most research communication, especially in the academic context, has an argument which is then backed up by evidence and examples from the literature and the research.  A good argument is one that is consistent, logical and precise. It is also clearly stated, usually in the introduction.

Resources

The following resources provide information about the structure of arguments, how to plan and organize your argument and then review it.

The OhioLink project at Youngstown State University introduces the principles of argument in their site: Research and Argument: Tools for Teachers and Students

For a more detailed explanation about developing an argument visit the Colorado State University’s Writing Center Writing Guide: Arguments

The principles of logic are outlined in Capital Community College’s Guide on Being Logical. The link to Purdue College provides a more detailed explanation.

Flow                                                                                             Up arrow

Because research communication often needs to relate very complex ideas to an audience (who may or may not be as well informed as the writer/presenter on the topic), we need to make it as easy as possible to follow.  An article or presentation will flow if we use:

·        Signposts to let the audience know where we are going and where we have been. For example, an introduction will outline the key areas to be covered, and the conclusion will summarise these points in the context of the research. If the article is long, then signposts can also be used at the beginning and end of each section.

·        Transitions to help the audience move from one idea to another. There are particular transition words and phrases that help us to position one idea in relation to another. Put the following transition words between the sentences to see the difference that having the right transition makes (or having no transition):

 

however

meanwhile

as a consequence

I do not like staying in hospital. I am very ill.

 

·        Punctuation in a way that doesn’t force the reader into stopping and starting. Short sentences like those above jar on the reader and are most effective when used sparingly. In contrast, the reader can get lost in long sentences. Punctuation can therefore help to create meaning as well as break up the sentences.

Resources

For more information about transitions and coherence, see Capital Community College’s Guide on Coherence: Transitions between Ideas

Further Resources                                                                     Up arrow

Learning Connection, UniSA, has a range of Learning guides and online workshops relating to academic writing.

Literacy Education Online, St Cloud State University (USA), has resources relating to grammar, referencing and writing styles.

The Writing Center, University of North Carolina (USA), has resources relating to writing in specific fields/disciplines, referencing and the mechanics of grammar.